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Notes From All Over

By: Kenneth A. Armson1 R.P.F.

Population:	12.1 million
Total Area:	106.9 million ha
Land Area:	89.1 million ha
Forest Land:	58 million ha
Provincial Parks:	7.2 million ha

A glance at any map showing the natural features of Ontario reveals a vast swath of forest that covers two-thirds of the province. While 174 million acres of land is forested, it hasn’t always been that way. Ontario’s forests are relative newcomers, sitting on lands that were shaped by continental glaciers, water and wind just 15,000 years ago. The trees became established on what was then a barren landscape as the ice retreated and waters receded south. Human settlement also happened in waves: first the Aboriginals, then Europeans and more re-cently people from all over the world.

Humans have had a significant effect on the forests, leading to increasing concern in the past century. However, the nature of the forest and the trees it contains is largely determined by overriding climatic conditions. For example, the boreal forest in northern Ontario still has remnants of eastern white and red pines, species characteristic of the Great Lakes–St. Lawrence forests to the south. Their presence reflects a period some three to four thousand years ago when a major warming of the climate allowed such species to move north.

Crystal Creek, near Sault Ste. Marie, Ontario is managed as a ski area, with periodic tree removal, but the boreal forest in the province's northwest quarter is more intensive managed as these block cuts indicate.

There are four main kinds of forests in Ontario. The most northerly part of the province, the Hudson Bay Lowlands, is an area of subarctic barrens with black and white spruce and willow trees. Below this is the Boreal forest, the largest forest region in Ontario and Canada. Here the main conifer species are black and white spruce, jack pine, balsam fir, tamarack and eastern white cedar; the predominant deciduous species are poplars and white birch.

These forests are very similar to those in northern Minnesota and parts of upper Michigan. Next is the Great Lakes–St. Lawrence region, the second largest in Ontario, which contains a wide range of tree and shrub species. These range from eastern white pine, hemlock and white cedar, red pine and balsam fir to sugar maple, white and yellow birches, red oak and basswood. The deciduous forest region is the most southerly and is situated north of Lake Erie. While it has most of the tree and shrub species found in the Great Lakes—St. Lawrence forest, it also contains black walnut, butternut, tulip, magnolia, black gum, many types of oaks, hickories, sassafras and red bud—species commonly found in Ohio, Pennsylvania and the Carolinas.

For millennia, Ontario’s forests have been shaped by major disturbances such as forest fires and fierce winds. As a result, there are large areas with one or more species that are adapted to regenerate after such catastrophic events. In the boreal forest, these include black spruce, jack pine and poplars, while the Great Lakes–St. Lawrence region has eastern white pine and red pine. In these forests, indigenous pests like the spruce budworm and forest tent caterpillars have also affected the nature of forest development. While the size, location and extent of infestation have varied, these pests have affected a wide range of forested landscapes. Of course, forests have also continued to change due to human activities. In the deciduous forest region and southern portions of the Great Lakes–St. Lawrence region, use of fire by Aboriginal peoples and cultivation of crops, such as corn, beans, squash and tobacco, was a major factor in determining the nature of the forests in the thousand or so years before European settlement.

The lumber industry in Ontario first developed in response to Great Britain’s need for timber during the Napoleonic Wars and to an ever-expanding market in the United States since the mid-1800s. During this same period, much of southern Ontario’s forest was cleared for agriculture, which also led to serious erosion by wind and water on areas of sandy soils. When over-harvested pine forests that had been burned by settlers’ fires or wildfire failed to regrow, it raised serious concerns. As a result, a conservation movement that started in the 1880s gathered strength and resulted in the establishment of Algonquin Park in 1893. Set aside as a “public park and forest reservation, fish and game preserve, health resort and pleasure ground for the benefit, advantage and enjoyment of the people of the Province”, Algonquin Park was then a major source of timber. Forest harvesting has continued in the park since 1975 under the careful management of the Algonquin Forestry Authority. Increased interest in conservation also led to the establishment of a provincial forest fire protection service. In southern agricultural areas, the reforestation of eroded and marginal farm lands was accomplished through municipal forests—some of the first in Canada. Significantly, the movement also resulted in the establishment of Canada’s first faculty of forestry in 1907 at the University of Toronto. Fifty years later, the Ontario Professional Foresters Association was formed to “…promote and increase the knowledge, skill and proficiency of its members…” In 2000, the association became a licensing body with authority and responsibility for the regulation of the practice of professional forestry by its members.

The tremendous growth of the United States economy in the first quarter of the 20th century provided both markets and incentives for investment in Ontario’s forests, particularly by the pulp and paper industry. This was the beginning of the initial exploitation of the Boreal forest, and led to the earliest attempts to manage the forests on a sustainable basis for timber. With that outline of Ontario’s forests and some of the factors that have affected them as background, the purpose of this article is to look at what Ontario has done in recent years to promote sustainability. The fact that Ontario’s forests reach back some 15,000 years doesn’t necessarily mean they will be there for another 15,000 years. Unless they are managed sustainably, they could cease to be a vital part of the province’s landscape and of people’s experience of Ontario. As noted above, a conservation movement helped remake public attitudes to the forest, and recent years have seen Ontario shift its forest policy to a more balanced ecological approach. During the past two decades, the province has worked hard to become a world leader in sustainable forest management It is important to note that a full 88% of forested lands in Ontario are provincially owned and known as Crown lands. All forest policies and management practices on these lands must conform to the Policy Framework for Sustainable Forestry, which covers such matters as harvesting and regeneration, the management of old-growth forests and the protection and conservation of non-timber values.

The goal of forest sustainability is entrenched in The Crown Forest Sustainability Act (1994) and entails providing for the sustainability of Crown forests while managing them to meet social, economic and environmental needs of present and future generations. This legislation covers all aspects of forest management, including planning, operations and silviculture, timber measurement and forest information systems.

In 1988, the management of timber on Crown forests was the subject of a thorough and in-depth environmental assessment, the first such comprehensive assessment of a province’s management of public forests in Canada. The Decision of the Board in 1994 approved the “undertaking” but placed a number of terms and conditions with timelines for implementation. Board hearings covered concerns raised by Aboriginal peoples, forest interest groups and the public. Issues such as clearcutting, the use of pesticides, and managing for water, wildlife, aesthetic and cultural values were addressed in the board’s decision. While initially focused on timber and long-term supply, many of the assessment’s terms and conditions dealt with how forest management affected other non-timber resources and values, biological diversity and the environment. The environmental approval of 1994 was extended and amended in 2003.

Hooker Lake, near Sioux Lookout, is reserved from harvesting because it lies within Ontario's expanded park system. Excellent walleye fishing attracts many anglers from the United States.

Most of Ontario’s Crown forests are divided into forest management units. Before any forestry activities can take place, a forest management plan must be prepared. The plan is developed by a Registered Professional Forester with help from a multidisciplinary team and input from a Local Citizens Committee, and must follow the requirements of a government manual. This includes determining the available harvest areas and assessing criteria and indicators of sustainability that meet Canadian and international systems (the Montreal Process).

Forest companies manage Crown forests under Sustainable Forest Licences. These cover a period of twenty years and are subject to renewal every five years following a satisfactory report, made public, by an independent third party audit. Companies are responsible for forest management on their licence area and pay the province for the right to harvest timber. Known as a stumpage charge, the fee consists of a base charge, a forest renewal charge and a residual value. The forest renewal charge is held in a trust fund to be used for forest regeneration on the licence area. Residual value is the percentage difference between the selling price of the forest product and the cost of manufacturing.

Ontario’s balanced ecological approach to the forest has been reflected in a major focus on setting aside significant areas of productive forest land as parks and protected areas. In these areas, logging, mining and hydro-electric development are for the most part excluded. In some cases, proposed areas for protection were within existing areas licensed to forest companies. Since their removal would affect timber supply, representatives of the forest industry, the environmental community (Partnership for Public Lands) and the government met in 1999 to try to resolve this issue. The result was the Ontario Forest Accord, a ground-breaking agreement that created a process for setting aside more parks and protected areas in the future and that promoted studies on ways to increase forest productivity. Since 1999, about 9,375 square miles have been added to Ontario’s system of parks and protected areas. The system now protects 35,500 square miles, and forests make up 23,500 square miles of that total.

Ontario’s stringent legislative and policy framework to safeguard forest sustainability means that forest companies operating in the province are well-placed to meet the standards set by any third party forest certification system. In fact, the province is moving to require that all Sustainable Forest Licence holders be certified to an accepted performance standard by the end of 2007. This is complemented by similar requirements from the Forest Products Association of Canada that its members meet the standards of sustainable forest management of the Canadian Standards Association (CSASFM), the Forest Stewardship Council (FSC) or the Sustainable Forest Initiative (SFI) by the same date. Currently 31,250 square miles are already certified to one of these standards.

The province’s commitment to sustainable forest management is also strongly supported by forestry science and innovation. MNR scientists work closely with the Canadian Forest Service, universities, forest industry and other organizations, to help forest managers take a lead role in developing new approaches and practices in their forests. New technologies are used to gain better information about both timber and non-timber values and to adapt practices to conserve those values at both forest and landscape levels. Such innovation is a priority and research is focused primarily on two large forest pilot studies. As well, two forests—one in the boreal forest and the other in southeastern Ontario—are members of the Canadian Model Forest Program. With one located on Crown forests and the other in an area made up primarily of private lands, the model forests been the source of many cooperative studies and technology transfer in the past two decades.

In ensuring sustainable forest management, it is ultimately silvicultural practices that determine what evolves after harvest. These practices involve different methods of harvesting and regeneration, as well as the tending and protection of the forest. The clearcutting system is used mainly in the Boreal forest and is designed to mimic many of the effects that would occur from natural fire. Under the Natural Disturbance Pattern Emulation Guide, harvested areas must vary in shape and size, and trees are left behind to ensure successful and healthy regeneration. Regrowth may also be promoted by seeding or planting. In such cases, mechanical site preparation may be used and some form of tending applied during the early development of the young stands of trees. The shelterwood system is used mainly in the Great Lakes-St. Lawrence region with eastern white pine and sometimes hardwoods such as yellow birch. The selection system is also used here and in the deciduous region in hardwood forests. With both the shelterwood and selection systems, the main focus is on natural regeneration. Ontario also has several detailed guides for the management of fish and wildlife and other non-timber values which provide forest managers with direction in the design of silvicultural practices.

Ontario's vast Algonquin Park is very popular with canoers and campers from both the U.S. and Canada. The area features a well-balanced mix of reserved areas and areas where harvesting is permitted.

While the vast majority of Ontario’s forests are Crown forests, private forests do make up about 11% of Ontario’s forested lands. They contribute a substantial proportion of Ontario’s timber harvest and also provide other products such as maple syrup. Private landowners are supported by the Ontario Stewardship Program, funded by the government, which provides help in finding information and expertise to better manage their forests. The program is delivered through a network of 40 Stewardship Councils comprising volunteer groups of landowners working with Ministry of Natural Resources staff.

Human efforts to maintain healthy and sustainable forests must also address fire, insects and disease— all natural components of forest ecosystems. This often means intervention to protect young forests or those with significant values. To help detect and suppress forest fires, a provincial air service was set up in 1924—the longest flying non-military government air service in the world. Over time, the Aviation and Forest Fire Management program has evolved and now takes a broader approach in providing not only protection for the health, safety and property of people living in and near forests but in allowing forest fire to fulfill its ecological role in certain forests. Ontario’s fire management program has been innovative in adapting new technology in detection and suppression and in working with federal and other provincial forest fire agencies through the Canadian Interagency Forest Fire Centre.
 
Forest insects and diseases can readily change forest conditions, often over large areas. A number of the major pests, such as the spruce budworm, tend to be cyclical. During a period of 13 years (1967- 1980) this pest, which actually prefers balsam fir, defoliated over 72,656 square miles of mostly balsam fir and white spruce. Trees killed by insects are a ready source of fuel for a forest fire, so areas of such outbreaks are of special concern. The Ministry of Natural Resources works in partnership with the Canadian Forest Service to monitor forest health, particularly with regard to insects and disease.

In Ontario’s far north, forest fires and insect depredations have been the major factors of disturbance. Human interference with the northern Boreal forest has been minimal, and no commercial logging has been allowed. Other activities, such as fly-in tourism, have been limited. This forest is home to a number of First Nations communities who, for generations, have depended on the forest for their existence. Recognizing the ecological importance of this large forest and its indigenous peoples, the Ontario Ministry of Natural Resources has established the Northern Boreal Initiative. The goal of the initiative is to work towards having Aboriginal people assume responsibility for the management of the forest lands on a community-by-community basis.

By way of conclusion, Ontario’s forests continue to be shaped and altered by human and natural forces. The early exploitation of pine forests provided the province with direct revenues—as much as 35% of the total—that were used for such infrastructure as roads and schools primarily in southern Ontario. Today, those direct revenues make up less than a quarter of one percent. However, the forest industry continues to be a key economic support of many northern communities. During the past few decades, the forest has also gone from being a source of a few renewable resources, such as timber, furs and game, to being treasured for a host of values and resources of importance to a largely urban population and seasonal recreational users. Too often, the conflicts that have arisen over forestry have resulted from a lack of understanding of the dynamic nature of forests and the timeframes over which they develop. This ongoing challenge must be met in many ways.

One way that Ontario has addressed it is to ensure public involvement in forest management planning and to make the primary goal in every plan the achievement of a healthy sustainable forest ecosystem. Ontario is committed to being a world leader in sustainable forest management because it recognizes that a sustainable forest is vital to both forest-based and urban communities.

By balancing the social, economic and environmental benefits derived from its forests, the province ensures that its forest resources continue to provide people with jobs and a healthy living environment now and in the future.

(Footnote)
1 Kenneth Armson is the former Provincial Forester for Ontario (1986-1989) and the author of “Ontario Forests: a historical perspective” 2001, 233 p., Fitzhenry & Whiteside and the Ontario Forestry Association, Toronto.